Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born on June 28, 1712 in Geneva,
Switzerland. His mother died shortly after his birth. When Rousseau was 10 his
father fled from Geneva to avoid imprisonment for a minor offense, leaving
young Jean-Jacques to be raised by an aunt and uncle. Rousseau left Geneva at
16, wandering from place to place, finally moving to Paris in 1742. He earned
his living during this period, working as everything from footman to assistant
to an ambassador.
Rousseau's profound insight can be found in almost every trace of modern philosophy today. Somewhat complicated and ambiguous, Rousseau's general philosophy tried to grasp an emotional and passionate side of man which he felt was left out of most previous philosophical thinking.
In his early writing, Rousseau contended that man is essentially good, a "noble savage" when in the "state of nature" (the state of all the other animals, and the condition man was in before the creation of civilization and society), and that good people are made unhappy and corrupted by their experiences in society. He viewed society as "artificial" and "corrupt" and that the furthering of society results in the continuing unhappiness of man.
Rousseau's essay, "Discourse on the Arts and Sciences" (1750), argued that the advancement of art and science had not been beneficial to mankind. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful, and crushed individual liberty. He concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of sincere friendship, replacing it with jealousy, fear and suspicion.
Perhaps Rousseau's most important work is "The social Contract” that describes the relationship of man with society. Contrary to his earlier work, Rousseau claimed that the state of nature is brutish condition without law or morality, and that there are good men only a result of society's presence. In the state of nature, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men. Because he can be more successful facing threats by joining with other men, he has the impetus to do so. "The Social Contract" is the "compact" agreed to among men that sets the conditions for membership in society.
Rousseau was one of the first modern writers to seriously attack the institution of private property, and therefore is considered a forebear of modern socialism and Communism. Rousseau also questioned the assumption that the will of the majority is always correct. He argued that the goal of government should be to secure freedom, equality, and justice for all within the state, regardless of the will of the majority.
One of the primary principles of Rousseau's political philosophy is that politics and morality should not be separated. When a state fails to act in a moral fashion, it ceases to function in the proper manner and ceases to exert genuine authority over the individual. The second important principle is freedom, which the state is created to preserve.
Rousseau's ideas about education have profoundly influenced modern educational theory. He minimizes the importance of book learning, and recommends that a child's emotions should be educated before his reason. He placed a special emphasis on learning by experience.
Rousseau's profound insight can be found in almost every trace of modern philosophy today. Somewhat complicated and ambiguous, Rousseau's general philosophy tried to grasp an emotional and passionate side of man which he felt was left out of most previous philosophical thinking.
In his early writing, Rousseau contended that man is essentially good, a "noble savage" when in the "state of nature" (the state of all the other animals, and the condition man was in before the creation of civilization and society), and that good people are made unhappy and corrupted by their experiences in society. He viewed society as "artificial" and "corrupt" and that the furthering of society results in the continuing unhappiness of man.
Rousseau's essay, "Discourse on the Arts and Sciences" (1750), argued that the advancement of art and science had not been beneficial to mankind. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful, and crushed individual liberty. He concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of sincere friendship, replacing it with jealousy, fear and suspicion.
Perhaps Rousseau's most important work is "The social Contract” that describes the relationship of man with society. Contrary to his earlier work, Rousseau claimed that the state of nature is brutish condition without law or morality, and that there are good men only a result of society's presence. In the state of nature, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men. Because he can be more successful facing threats by joining with other men, he has the impetus to do so. "The Social Contract" is the "compact" agreed to among men that sets the conditions for membership in society.
Rousseau was one of the first modern writers to seriously attack the institution of private property, and therefore is considered a forebear of modern socialism and Communism. Rousseau also questioned the assumption that the will of the majority is always correct. He argued that the goal of government should be to secure freedom, equality, and justice for all within the state, regardless of the will of the majority.
One of the primary principles of Rousseau's political philosophy is that politics and morality should not be separated. When a state fails to act in a moral fashion, it ceases to function in the proper manner and ceases to exert genuine authority over the individual. The second important principle is freedom, which the state is created to preserve.
Rousseau's ideas about education have profoundly influenced modern educational theory. He minimizes the importance of book learning, and recommends that a child's emotions should be educated before his reason. He placed a special emphasis on learning by experience.
The
problematic character of modernity and
liberalism is thrust to our attention today as those
who have thrown off their shackles
look to our political experience and political science for guidance at the same
time that they question its substance and sufficiency. Now is the time not for
self satisfaction, but self-knowledge.
J.J Rousseau sees the dilemmas of modern
politics and political science with vogue.
A
second major influence is Rousseau’s political thought. Not only is he one of
the most important figures in the history of political philosophy, later
influencing Karl Marx among others, but his works were also championed by the
leaders of the French Revolution. And finally, his philosophy was largely
instrumental in the late eighteenth century Romantic Naturalism movement in
Europe thanks in large part to Julie or the New Heloise and the Reveries
of the Solitary Walker.
2.2 ROUSSEAU LIBERALISM
Classical liberalism is a political ideology that embraces individual rights, private property and a laissez-faire economy, a government that exists to protect the liberty of each individual from others, and a constitution that protects individual autonomy from governmental power. It first emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries and was founded on ideas of individualism and free market economics with a focus on individual autonomy and, again, private property. The sole legitimate function of government is to defend these individual rights and a particular emphasis is placed on the sovereignty of the individual. Each of the above liberal thinkers offered their unique take on the detailed implementation of such governmental structures, but the consensus seemed to be that individuals are the basis of law and society, and that society and its institutions exist to further the ends of individuals. Classical liberalism makes use of a social contract, under which citizens make the laws and agree to abide by the laws they have made: It is based on the belief that individuals know best what is best for them.
Rousseau was critical of existing society, claiming that private "property, in itself is the source of a thousand quarrels and conflicts:" Although it is property that brings about war, conflict, and thus the need for a civil state, Rousseau believed that society could be improved if all individuals shared equally in the construction of laws for their common general happiness. Rousseau wanted a social order whose laws were in greatest harmony with the fundamental laws of nature. This is, Rousseau's social contract was to allow the individual to be is absorbed into the common, general will, without losing his own will: "...a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force of the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before. This is the fundamental problem of which the Social Contract provides the solution."
The individual loses nothing and gains in return the assurance that he will be protected by the full force of society against the the wills of other individuals and groups. He is now a member of a society of equals and has regained an equality not unlike the one he enjoyed in nature - but in a new form and on a higher level.
Rousseau goes on to state: "If then we discard from the social compact what is not of its essence, we shall find that it reduces itself to the following terms: 'Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.'" In short, the public person formed by social contract, the sovereign, has a will of its own: 'general will.' What it wills is always the true interest of what every citizen actually wants, whether they realize it or not. When you are forced to obey it, you really are only obeying yourself, the true and free you.
According to Rousseau's theory of social contract, we leave an anarchical state of nature by voluntarily transferring our personal rights to society generally in return for security of life and property. He argues that people should form a society to which they would completely surrender themselves, and by giving up these rights, we actually create a new entity in the form of a public 'sovereign' that would be directed by a general will. When we join the community, we voluntarily agree to comply with the 'general will' of the community.
The result of this seems to be that all power, individuals, and hence their rights, are under the control and direction of the entire community. This means that no one can do anything without the consent of all. Everyone is totally dependent on everybody else for all aspects of their lives. In staunch defiance of classical liberal ideals of individuality and such, this universal dependency eliminates the possibility of independent individual achievement. Perhaps inequality is disposed of, but only at the cost of everything individual.
Classical liberalism is a political ideology that embraces individual rights, private property and a laissez-faire economy, a government that exists to protect the liberty of each individual from others, and a constitution that protects individual autonomy from governmental power. It first emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries and was founded on ideas of individualism and free market economics with a focus on individual autonomy and, again, private property. The sole legitimate function of government is to defend these individual rights and a particular emphasis is placed on the sovereignty of the individual. Each of the above liberal thinkers offered their unique take on the detailed implementation of such governmental structures, but the consensus seemed to be that individuals are the basis of law and society, and that society and its institutions exist to further the ends of individuals. Classical liberalism makes use of a social contract, under which citizens make the laws and agree to abide by the laws they have made: It is based on the belief that individuals know best what is best for them.
Rousseau was critical of existing society, claiming that private "property, in itself is the source of a thousand quarrels and conflicts:" Although it is property that brings about war, conflict, and thus the need for a civil state, Rousseau believed that society could be improved if all individuals shared equally in the construction of laws for their common general happiness. Rousseau wanted a social order whose laws were in greatest harmony with the fundamental laws of nature. This is, Rousseau's social contract was to allow the individual to be is absorbed into the common, general will, without losing his own will: "...a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force of the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before. This is the fundamental problem of which the Social Contract provides the solution."
The individual loses nothing and gains in return the assurance that he will be protected by the full force of society against the the wills of other individuals and groups. He is now a member of a society of equals and has regained an equality not unlike the one he enjoyed in nature - but in a new form and on a higher level.
Rousseau goes on to state: "If then we discard from the social compact what is not of its essence, we shall find that it reduces itself to the following terms: 'Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.'" In short, the public person formed by social contract, the sovereign, has a will of its own: 'general will.' What it wills is always the true interest of what every citizen actually wants, whether they realize it or not. When you are forced to obey it, you really are only obeying yourself, the true and free you.
According to Rousseau's theory of social contract, we leave an anarchical state of nature by voluntarily transferring our personal rights to society generally in return for security of life and property. He argues that people should form a society to which they would completely surrender themselves, and by giving up these rights, we actually create a new entity in the form of a public 'sovereign' that would be directed by a general will. When we join the community, we voluntarily agree to comply with the 'general will' of the community.
The result of this seems to be that all power, individuals, and hence their rights, are under the control and direction of the entire community. This means that no one can do anything without the consent of all. Everyone is totally dependent on everybody else for all aspects of their lives. In staunch defiance of classical liberal ideals of individuality and such, this universal dependency eliminates the possibility of independent individual achievement. Perhaps inequality is disposed of, but only at the cost of everything individual.
Great article!